CONTENTS

Unit- I    

1. Kinetic Model of an Ideal Gas : Specific Heats of Gases, Equipartition of Energy
1.1. An Ideal Gas and its Equation of State ...1
1.2. Kinetic Theory of Matter ... 3
1.3. Kinetic Theory of Gases ... 5
1.4. Estimation of r.m.s. Speed of Molecules ... 8
1.5. Interpretation of Temperature ...10
1.6. Specific Heat of Gases ...14
1.7. Atomicity of a Gas ...15
1.8. Degrees of Freedom ...17
1.9. Law of Equipartition of Energy ...17
1.10. Specific Heat of Gases ...19
1.11. Variation of Specific Heat of Diatomic Gases with Temperature ...21
1.12. Specific Heats at Low Temperature ...23
1.13. Adiabatic Expansion ...23
2. Brownian Motion : Estimation of Avogadro's Number
2.1. Brownian Motion ...38
2.2. Estimation of Avogadro's Number ...39
3. Atmospheric Physics
3.1. Earth's Atmosphere ...42
3.2. Applications to Atmospheric Physics ...44
4. Real Gases And Vander Waal's Equation of State : Critical Constants
4.1 Real Gas and Boyle Temperature ...47
4.2 Andrew's Experiment ...49
4.3. Vander Waal's Equation of State ...51
4.4. Comparison of Vander Waal's Theoretical Curves ...52
4.5. Nature of Vander Waals Forces ...53
4.6. The Critical Constants ...57
4.7. Relation Between Boyle Temperature and Critical Temperature ...61
4.8. Gas and Vapour ...63
5. Joule Expansion : Joule-Kelvin Effect
5.1. Joule Expansion of an Ideal Gas ...72
5.2. Expression for Joule's Coefficient for a Vander Waals Gas ...74
5.3. Joule Thomson Effect : Porous Plug Experiment ...76
5.4. Joule-Thomson Expansion : Constancy of Enthalpy ...78
5.5. Joule-Thomson Cooling ...80
5.6. Boyle Temperature and Inversion Temperature ...83

Unit-II

6. Liquefaction of Gases : Liquid Helium I and II
6.1. Regenerative Cooling ...94
6.2. Principle of Cascade Cooling ...95
6.3. Liquefaction of Hydrogen ...97
6.4. Liquefaction of Helium ...98
6.5. Refrigeration Cycle ...99
7. Mean Free Path and Transport Phenomena
7.1. Molecular Collisions and Mean Free Path ...104
7.2. Transport Phenomena ...106
7.3. Viscosity (Transport of Momentum) ...106
7.4. Thermal Conduction (Transport of Energy)  ...108
7.5. Diffusion (Transport of Mass) ...110
7.6. Estimation of Molecular Diameter and Mean Free Path ...111

Unit-III

8. The Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics : Thermal Equilibrium
8.1. Macroscopic and Microscopic Properties ...127
8.2. Law of Thermodynamics : Zeroth Law ...128
9. Heat and Work : The First Law of Thermodynamics
9.1. Thermodynamics System and Equilibrium ...133
9.2. External and Internal Works ...134
9.3. Indicator Diagram ...135
9.4 Dependence of Heat and Work on Path ...136
9.5. Internal Energy of a System ...137
9.6. First Law of Thermodynamics ...139
9.7. Different Processes ...139
10. First Law Applied to Ideal Gases : Isothermal And Adiabatic Processes
10.1. Specific Heat of a Gas ...150
10.2. Isothermal and Adiabatic Process ...152
10.3. External Work Done in Isothermal and Adiabatic Expansion ...155
10.4. Change in Internal Energy and Enthalpy ...158
11. Heat Engines : The Second Law of Thermodynamics
11.1. Reversible and Irreversible Process ...174
11.2. Carnot Cycle and Its Efficiency ...176
11.3. Carnot's Engine ...178
11.4. Carnot's Ideal Refrigerator ...184
11.5. Second Law of Thermodynamics ...185
11.6. Carnot's Theorem ...188
11.7. Absolute Scale of Temperature ...190
11.8. Internal Combustion Engine ...194
12. Entropy And The Third Law of Thermodynamics
12.1. Entropy and Its Significance ...217
12.2. Change in Entropy in Reversible And in Irreversible Process ...217
12.3. Entropy of an Isolated System ...222
12.4. T-S Diagram ...223
12.5. Principle of Increase of Entropy ...226
12.6. Change in Entropy During Free Expansion ...228
12.7. Entropy of Perfect Gas ...234
12.8. Change in Entropy of a Vander Waal's Gas ...236
12.9. Third Law of Thermodynamics ...237
13. Maxwell's Thermodynamic Relations and Their Applications
13.1. Thermodynamic Variables ...261
13.2. Maxwell's Thermodynamic Relations ...262
13.3. Vander Waal's Gas Under Free Expansion ...273
13.4. Joule-Thomson Cooling ...279
13.5. Adiabatic Demagnetisation (Magnetic Cooling) ...283
13.6. Production And Measurement of Low Temperature ...287
14. Thermodynamics Functions
14.1 Thermodynamic Potentials ...293
14.2 Enthalpy ...296
14.3 Internal Energy And Free Energy
14.4 Gibbs Free Energy ...299
15. Thermodynamics of Change of State
15.1 Clausius-Clapeyron Latent Heat Equation ...305
15.2 Second Latent Heat Equation ...308

Unit-IV

16. Radiation
16.1 Radiation and Properties of Radiant Energy ...329
16.2 Blackbody Radiation ...334
16.3 Kirchhoff's Law : Emissive and Absorptive Powers ...335
16.4. Stefan-Boltzmann Law ...337
16.5. Spectral Distribution of Energy in Black Body Radiation ...342
16.6. Wien's Displacement Law And Rayleigh-Jean's Law ...344
16.7. Planck's Formula ...345
16.8. Solar Constant ...349